Fig. 4

Estimation of cell damage and oxidative stress. Quantitation of cell damage and oxidative markers in Vicia faba tissues collected from seedlings exposed to two different concentrations of nanomaterials (50 mg kg⁻¹ and 100 mg kg⁻¹). Change of lipid peroxidation rate, in terms of MDA content, in leaves (A), stems (B), and roots (C) from samples exposed to low and high dose of nanoparticles. D Level of superoxide anion in V. faba samples treated with high and low doses of NPs. E Representative images of V. faba leaves subjected to in vivo localization for O₂•.⁻ by histochemical staining with NBT. F Hydrogen peroxide levels in samples exposed to low and high doses of NPs. G Representative images of V. faba leaf portions subjected to in vivo localization for H₂O₂ by histochemical staining with DCFH-DA (the scale bar indicates 20 μm). Magnifications of the areas selected in red are shown. H Flavonoid content in faba bean samples treated with low and high doses of NPs. All data represent means ± S.E. of at least three different measurements. The asterisks denote significant differences between samples and respective controls (one-way ANOVA/LSD test; ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05)